Speaking of immigrants, reading Grace Young's Stir-frying to the Sky's Edge and later joining the facebook group Wok Wednesdays opened my eyes to aspects of Chinese-American history stemming back to the 1850's.  While I knew many immigrants predominantly from southern China had come over during the gold rush and played a key (but relatively unrecognized) role in building the transcontinental railroad, I had no idea that the Chinese-Americans in the deep South served as a bridge between white and recently emancipated black communities. They opened "groceries...serving both white and black customers." but "...mostly in the African-American communities where they lived." This continued on into the 20th century in the Mississippi Delta area. "Greenville, in particular was known for the dozens of Chinese groceries... as many as 50 stores in a city of some 40,000 people. 'I was raised in a grocery store,' Wong says, and he means it literally."

Not surprisingly, given the predominance of impoverished laborers that came from China to work the fields, railroads, laundries and food services, similar types of incendiary rhetoric and exclusionary laws were applied to both Chinese, legal immigrants of which were barred from becoming naturalized citizens, and African-Americans in nineteenth century America. In his award winning book Chinese Immigrants, African Americans, and Racial Anxiety in the United States, 1848-82, Najia Aarim-Heriot details the parallel treatment of Chinese immigrants and African Americans. Along with other researchers, the growing anti-Asian sentiment is framed in the context of backlash against the gains made by the 13th-15th amendments. Oddly, as evidenced through an analysis of political cartoons, the Chinese and Mormons were seen as the greatest threats. "Though suggesting the firmer hold by the Irish, African, and Native on their claim to American soil, the cartoon also warns that these bedfellows may be subject to ejection, deportation, or exclusion should they refuse to 'behave themselves in a dutiful manner.'"

 

As stated in Encyclopaedia Brittanica,  "The Chinese Exclusion Act ended in 1943 when it was replaced by the Magnuson Act, which permitted an annual quota of 105 Chinese immigrants," but continued to permit states to ban ownership of property and businesses by ethnic Chinese. My mother immigrated via Taiwan after the Chinese Civil War, seeking education in Texas with the hope of returning home to support democracy. As it was nearly 90 years after the Emancipation Proclamation, she was shocked to learn about Segregation. She saw no reason to wait in long lines for the white drinking fountain, nor to stand with her petite frame placing her face at armpit level in the crowded front of the bus, when there were seats in the back. Once a bus driver stopped the bus to inform her that she was in the "colored" section and ask her to come to the front section to stand. She demurred, stating that she was colored -- yellow -- drawing the smiles of fellow bus riders in the back. She recounted these experiences through a series of lightweight airmail letters home, poking fun at herself as a country bumpkin discovering many things in America 美國 (Měiguó), literally the beautiful nation, but unfortunately those letters were lost after my grandmother's death.

Among the recipes that Grace highlights to show how members of the Chinese diaspora adapted traditional cooking techniques to local flavors and ingredients are a set of amazing Chinese-American-Caribbean stir-fries. Around the same time that my mother was living in Texas, Grace recounts the story of Rose who notes that in the 1950s, "the combination of Chinese foods with Jamaican flavors was fashionable, and a popular ingredient was Pickapeppa, a local sauce known as Jamaican ketchup". This sauce is featured in Chinese Jamaican Stir-fried Chicken with Chayote.  Other delicious dishes include Chinese Trinidadian Chicken with Mango Chutney, Winnie's Chinese Trinidadian Stir-fried Shrimp with Rum, and Chinese Jamaican Stir-fried Beef and Carrots. This latter recipe is one of my favorites.  I love the simplicity of only 5 main ingredients that are easy to keep on hand. I had to mail order the Matouk's Calypso sauce, which is well worth it. After tasting it, I immediately ordered three more bottles!

Although almost all new groups to the US have faced discrimination and barriers, the systemic prejudice against African-Americans has remained shockingly overt and pervasive. It is truly sad to hear about mothers being afraid to let their children run and play outside. This needs to change. Although many of us may feel powerless as individuals, together we can change things. We can improve communication and we can vote, both literally and in the choices we make in our every day lives. 

Take the time to talk to people with different looks, cultures or backgrounds. It is enriching and important to see and respect people for who they are. And try to identify and support your local businesses!

I would also love to return to New Orleans, where I have been blown away by the restaurants, but this time I plan to seek out some of the restaurants featured in this article.  

As for cookbooks, I am really looking forward to cooking from In Bibi's Kitchen: The recipes and stories of grandmothers from the eight African countries that touch the Indian Ocean. I have always been fascinated by regional differences in cooking within the same continent. Plus, this book will be joining the shelves next to Heirloom Kitchen: Heritage recipes and family stories from the tables of immigrant women, which is organized by continent (Europe, Africa, Asia, Central & South America and the Middle East) and The Asian Grandmothers Cookbook: Home cooking from Asian American Kitchens. I guess I have a soft spot for grandmothers spreading love through cooking.